Lichens are plant-like organisms that are rather unusual in that they are an amalgam of two (or occasionally three) organisms : a fungus and algae (or cyanobacterium). They are symbiotic systems, where the partners of the association work together for mutual benefit.  The fungus makes up the bulk of the lichen's form (known as the thallus), it is a complex network of fungal hyphae that surround the algal cells.  The algae (green algae or cyanobacteria) are essential to the association as they can photosynthesise, fixing carbon dioxide and providing both partners with organic carbon compounds (often in the form of sugar alcohols). Some lichen species are brightly coloured. The colour may vary from a golden yellow to a deep red. The pigments responsible for these colours belong to the anthraquinones.  However, these insoluble, phenolic pigments can have toxic effects. To avoid harm by these pigments, the lichen exports* the pigment from the fungal component of the symbiosis. The pigment then accumulates / crystallises on the surface of the lichen. The layer of pigment crystals reflects harmful radiation (in the form of UV light) and also blue light, whilst still allowing enough light to pass through for photosynthesis by the algae / cyanobacteria. Exposure to UV light can damage DNA, inducing mutations.  The pigmentl layer is effectively a ‘sunscreen’ for the lichen. * Recent work at Imperial College and RBG, Kew has identified the genes responsible for pigment production, and the transport of the pigment out of the fungal tissue. In the past, certain lichen pigments were often used to dye clothing materials.    Parmelia saxatilis, also known as grey crottle, was used to dye wool for Harris Tweed.  This lichen is often found growing on tree trunks and gives a red / brown colour to the material. [caption id="attachment_39793" align="aligncenter" width="700"] Lichen and moss growing together  (thanks to Art for photos)[/caption] Woodlands TV has produced two short videos on the biology of lichens :- https://youtu.be/XQ_ZY57MY64     https://youtu.be/0djrOgKtGlk

I recently attended the National Allotment Society AGM, where the keynote speaker was Professor David Goulson.  His main academic studies focus on the threats to bees, bumblebees and other insects. He is based at Sussex University.  Back in 2006, he founded the Bumblebee Conservation Trust; a charity which has grown to some 12,000 members.  In his talk at the meeting, he made the following points : He loves allotments because they capture carbon and are rich in biodiversity.  They produce a lot of food.  Typically producing some 10 tonnes / hectare whereas farming productivity is about 3 tonnes per hectare.  The record on a 1m2 in an allotment is 10 kg, which is the equivalent of 100 tonnes / hectare.  Allotments not only produce good food for healthy eating, but people get good exercise through their gardening activities.  A study shows the ‘over-60s’ with allotments have longer life expectancies [controlling for other variables]. [caption id="attachment_40124" align="aligncenter" width="675"] A bee at risk of extinction.[/caption] There are over 300,000 allotment plots in the UK and some 90,000 people on waiting lists.  More allotments could help counter poor health and cut NHS costs. We should turn our cities, towns and villages into a network of nature reserves - essentially a form of urban rewilding. Gardens are a vital part of this, as there are some 400,000 hectares of them in Britain.   Prof Goulson is really keen on less mowing, more ponds and no pesticides. Interestingly, France banned pesticide use in public and urban areas, such as parks, back in 2014 - it is an example that we should follow. Even pet flea treatment is damaging to insect life.  The strength of the doses used means that the chemicals can pass into the environment - to grass, rivers, canals and pools.  Sadly, now 8% of gardens have some plastic lawns, and plastic hedges (and Wisteria !).  Plastic makes him despair.Plant diversity in pavements should be celebrated. Wild flowers / weeds are sources of pollen & nectar for pollinators.  Verges should be nature reserves.  A Scottish "On the Verge" group stopped councils mowing 8x a year and planted a seed mix to transform verges in their area.  Councils should mow less.  Some people may object, so people should strengthen their Council’s hands by writing to them and praising them for no-mow-May-type efforts.  The Buzz Club - has been set up, this is a citizen science project to see what works best for insects. There are lots of short films on his youtube channel . Bees and other pollinators need help.  He suggested lots of ways to help them, for example,  drilling holes in logs for bug hotels.  You can follow Prof Goulson on Twitter or Facebook. [caption id="attachment_40132" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Bumblebees 'enjoing' a small clump of poppies[/caption] [caption id="attachment_40129" align="aligncenter" width="428"] urban herbicide use[/caption]  

I remember my finger hovering over the send button to contact Dan Watson from woodlands.co.uk after seeing two woodlands for sale. One had a majestic old tree, the other a beautiful stream running through it.   Dan contacted me to give me directions so I could initially view the woods alone. The directions were clear and despite a little ‘off roading’, my two spaniels and I found the woods and spent a couple of hours wandering around them.   It was January 2023 and despite the woodlands being very dormant, the quiet, still beauty of the woods opened my lungs and for the first time in a long time I felt I was breathing with ease. A calm swept over me. My orientating skills failed me and I never found the tree in the  photo. I arranged a second viewing with Dan a week later. This was beneficial as Dan was full of information on the trees, plants and wildlife, and a little history on the area. The tree was more stunning than the photo. My dilemma now was which wood to buy as together they would make 9 acres of stunning woodland.  Taking the plunge to buy both was both scary and exhilarating. I may finally get to preserve a little bit of this beautiful world we seem so driven to destroy. The woodlands website was brilliant and pointed me in the direction of  a local conveyancing solicitor.  The process was unbelievably swift and smooth. A couple of telephone conversations and relevant paperwork sent, signed and returned through the post  - five weeks later I owned what is now Lackenby Dell.   Dan phoned to congratulate me and said the key to the gates would be posted. Within days that ‘nugget of gold’ arrived and so my woodland adventures begin.

As stated in the previous post, bark is a mixture of living and dead cells.  Cork cells abound, especially in trees like the cork oak, where the cork may be regularly harvested.  This may be used for flooring, insulation and yes - corks for wine bottles. However, bark is a source of many things.  From early times, bark from trees like alder, buckthorn, oak, birch etc were used to make dyes for clothing.  Material from the inner bark of some trees (e.g. lime, willow, mulberry) was a source of fibres for clothing and cordage (string / yarn). Herbalists also found a use for the bark of certain trees.  Infusions of willow were used to treat fevers, the ‘ague’, rheumatic aches and pain.  It contains salicin, which the body converts to salicylic acid, an early 'form' of 'aspirin'. Interestingly, Nicholas Culpeper, in The Complete Herbal (of 1653) gives a number of uses for willow, including to staunch wounds, but does not mention pain control. The bark of the Cinchona [Jesuit’s bark] gave quinine - a treatment for malaria [caption id="attachment_39935" align="alignleft" width="300"] Amber[/caption] When a tree, like a pine, is injured (through storm damage or insect attack), the bark can produce resin - a sticky and viscous liquid.   The resin is produced in resin ducts present within the bark tissue, though the ducts may be present in deeper tissues. Research has shown that ponderosa pine trees that had more (and wider) resin ducts survived drought and bark beetle attack better.  The resin can harden and help seal wounds . Many resins contain terpenes, such as alpha-pinene and limoneme.  The resin from pine and other conifers can under special circumstances be converted into amber.  Sometimes, the resins produced can be fragrant. Trees of the genus Boswellia and Commiphora produce a aromatic resin that gives frankincense and myrrh respectively.  Both are produced by the wounding of a tree so that its resin seeps out.  Both may be used in the making of incense. Another bark exudate comes from certain species of Acacia - Gum arabic, which forms from the hardened sap (adjacent image).  Acacia species belong to the ‘Bean’ family (Fabaceae).  The gum is collected from trees, mostly in Sudan and the Sahel.  Gum arabic is a mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.  The polysaccharides are constructed from the sugars arabinose and galactose. It is soluble in water and edible, and has a number of uses in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Tapping or wounding the bark of different trees can result in various fluids being released, for example, latex.    White or yellow latex is produced by the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).  The latex is found in special vessels within the bark - laticifers. The process of tapping rubber trees is outlined in some detail here.   Latex production is not confined to woody trees, small herbaceous plants like dandelion and spurge can produce a white, milky latex (as can the opium poppy). [caption id="attachment_39984" align="alignleft" width="300"] Euphorbia latex[/caption] The latex produced by some members of the Spurge family can cause burning pain, inflammation or even blistering - for example that of the Pencil tree.  Such toxic saps most likely evolved to deter animals from grazing. Sometimes, a watery sap may be collected from the bark.  This is the case with Birch.  Sap may be collected (tapped) in early Spring, when sugars and other materials are being mobilised for growth, leaf production etc.  Sap may be collected later but is said to then have a bitter taste.  The sap is an interesting ‘cocktail’ of amino acids, protein, sugars (glucose & fructose), betulinic acid, proteins, vitamins C & B, and minerals.  It is used to make a much favoured drink in Northern Europe and should be consumed within days of collection.  Birch trees are quite sensitive to tapping. Not watery, but very sugary is Maple Syrup. Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes through their bark and into their trunks. Starch is stored in the trunks and roots before winter, it is then converted and mobilised in late winter / early Spring. The collected  sap (through tapping) is then heated to produce a concentrated syrup. Thanks to Montemari at Pixabay for image of gum arabic

What a fabulous day spent with Chloe, a professional forager, educator, wild food consultant and chef, along with her truffle hunting spaniel, Samphire.  We enjoyed a fully immersive foraging experience near the banks of the River Severn in Chepstow, Monmouthshire. Wales, she explained is bountiful at any given time of the year,  you just have to know when, where and how to find it!   We weren’t disappointed, encountering an incredible array of edible flora and fauna amongst meadows, hedgerows, salt marsh coastal flats and ancient woodland, locating over 30 herbs, roots, flowers, vegetables, field mushrooms, nuts, seeds and estuary herbs. Chloe’s enthusiasm and passion shone through as she  described how to identify, sustainably harvest and utilise all of the incredibly nutritionally superior and flavour-packed wild ingredients. Who knew such a treasure trove of nature’s bounty lay tantalisingly within our reach.   A foraged feast in the wild was a perfect end to the session, enjoying a myriad of pre-prepared dishes and accompanied by the freshly picked produce of the day. Her incredible menu included Creamy oyster & field mushroom soup with miso and brandy, Orange birch bolete mushroom puff pastries, Mugwort focaccia, Venison, cider and wholegrain mustard broth, Elfcup mushrooms stuffed with 3-cornered garlic and wild walnut pesto with fresh garlic leaves, Jack by the hedge and cleaver hummus with Primrose blooms, Fennel and chickpea salad, Roast brace of pheasant stuffed with Scott’s Pine with allspice, cranberry and honey, Roast Muntjac venison shoulder with garlic, thyme and juniper, served with rose and red clover jelly, and bacon cured chicken of the woods mushroom nuggets with wild plum barbecue sauce. Chloe had a treasure trove of knowledge too as she detailed the folklore, medicinal and nutritional benefits. Of particular interest were the use of  medicinal mushrooms which are thought to strengthen the immune system   : Reishi, Lion’s Mane, Chaga, Cordyceps, and particularly Turkey Tail, where a preparation known as Krestin has been used as a supportive therapy against Cancer in Japan for decades. She explained the origins of the word ‘wort’.  most likely derived from the Anglo Saxon word for wound or hurt, implying curative properties such as Navelwort, St John’s Wort and Mugwort, but occasionally implying a strong physiological effect of a negative nature such as poisonous Ragwort too.  Folklore is related to the Yarrow plant, Achillea millefolium, the latter meaning thousands of leaves due to its fluffy, feather like appearance.  Achillea is related to the legend of Achilles who always carried Yarrow on the battlefield to stem bleeding - it’s a wonderful styptic.  To protect him before the Trojan war his family collected Yarrow, considered to be a cure all miracle herb and immersed it in water. They dipped his entire body but held him by one foot which didn’t get drenched in the magic water, hence the expression “Achilles' heel” The muddy banks of the Seven Estuary harboured some hidden gems.  Scurvy grass or spoonworm, a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae were taken aboard ships in dried bundles to combat scurvy. Wild spinach, Plantains, Radishes and Cabbages line the estuary coast.  Wales has a seaweed tasting like truffles with a hint of garlic called Pepper Dulse.  Woodruff is a beautiful woodland plant growing in whorls, which when dried tastes like Amaretto. The enchanting Elfcup - a dainty red mushroom adoring the forest floor appears to emit a puff of ‘fairy dust’ when picked.  Nature, as always, a treasure trove of beauty and magic.  The cautionary mantras “Never munch on a hunch” and ‘If in doubt, leave it out” are wise words indeed. The poisonous Ragwort with its yellow flattened flower heads appears similar to Wild Cabbage, and the Hemlock Water Dropwort can be deadly, all parts of the plant are highly toxic and ingestion can be fatal. A member of the carrot family it has many edible lookalikes such as celery and parsley which can be confusing and dangerous for a novice.  It grows in damp areas - wet grassland and woodland, river and stream banks, canals and in the vicinity of ponds and lakes Foraging is fun! But there are a few rules to observe. Please contact the landowner for permission to forage on private land, and do not forage on public land for commercial gain.  Avoid areas which could have been sprayed with chemicals such as land bordering farmland. It is illegal to dig up a wild plant by the root or bulb unless you are the landowner or have the landowner’s permission. Always forage sustainably and with care, observe how prolific the plant is and never take too much.  For more information,  please contact Chloe Newcomb Hodgetts : Foraging Course and Guided Walks Purveyor at Gourmet Gatherings: www.gourmetgatherings.co.uk .

Trees for a longer life? Researchers from US Forest Service has completed a survey of tree planting in Portland, Oregon and concluded that the more tres are planted in an area, the longer people live. The Portland “Friends of Trees” have planted some 50,000 oaks, dogwoods and other trees around the city over the last thirty years.  After adjusting for factors such as race, income, age and education, the team found that where more trees had been been planted, fewer people died.    This was true for all areas - wealthy or less so. Furthermore, as the trees aged, the mortality rates of the people nearby went down.  Trees generally improve air quality and moderate extreme high temperatures.  A recent report in the medical journal The Lancet suggested that many of the premature deaths from the 2015 heat wave in Europe could have been avoided with 30 percent more tree cover. Birds in decline. UK bird populations are in decline.  Much of the decline occurred in the 1970’s and 80’s, and was particularly noticeable in populations of farmland and woodland birds.  However, the losses have continued in recent times, with a 5% decline between 2015 and 2020. Again, woodland birds have fared poorly with a 12% decline in this period.   The steepest decline in population numbers are seen in species such the Tree Sparrow, Willow Tit, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker and Nightingale.  These have all declined by 90% or more since the late 1960’s. The Turtle Dove shows the biggest decline of any species. Habitat loss is thought to be the main driver of population decline for many species, but oil and plastic pollution are also factors, as is disease - such as trichomonasis and avian flu  Certain species typically associated with urban areas / habitats (Swift, House Martin, Starling and House Sparrow) are also declining. Predation by cats might be a factor, the Mammal Society estimates that cats in the UK catch some 92 million prey items over Spring and Summer, of which around 27 million are birds. Disease such as avian malaria is another factor, one study found 74% of sparrows were infected with the parasite Plasmodium relictum; the changing nature of urban gardens may also be a consideration.  Bees and sunflower pollen grains Bees and bumblebees are struggling with various parasites /infections.  One parasite is the gut pathogen Crithidia bombi.  This is known to affect the ability of bumblebees to create a successful colony. Previous studies have indicated that the the gut microbiome of the bees can help protect against infection by this parasite.  Now a study at the University of Massachusetts Amherst has found that sunflower pollen can help bees resist infection.  It was not known why sunflower pollen was effective, it could be that the shape of the pollen grains was important or the chemical makeup within the grains, or a combination of the two. To test the ‘anti-parasitic nature of the pollen’, an experiment was set up so that some bees received the outer shell of the sunflower pollen (the sculptured exine), whilst another group received the materials from the centre of the pollen grains (but no outer coverings), and a third group received whole pollen.   Bees that received whole pollen grains or just the spiny shells had far less of the parasite in their gut compared to those eating the ‘soft centres’ .  The pollen grains and pollen shells reduced infection by 80 to 90+%.  So it is the spiny shape of the pollen grains that is important in reducing infection in the bees.  'Physical removal' of pathogens is known in other animals, for example, great apes infected with certain nematodes or tapeworms will consume bristly leaves.   These 'irritate' the gut and increase the expulsion of the parasites.

Last weekend, we visited our woodland for the first time since officially completing.  Although it’s May and the forecast had promised sunshine, the day dawned cold and gloomy. Undaunted, we packed up the car for the 45-minute journey and rolled into Lamberhurst around half nine in the morning. Our biggest fear was that we would have missed the bluebell peak entirely during all the wrangling over conveyancing across two counties (the boundaries between Kent and Sussex neatly bisect our wood). But we needn’t have worried – as we drove down the shared track to our new purchase, the entire woodland was a sea of blue punctuated with hard fern and last year’s brambles. It was almost painful crushing them under our boots as we made our way from the car to the central clearing, but it couldn’t be helped. Although some animals had left faint traces here and there, it only took one or two passes back and forth for us to create a blatantly visible path – I felt like a big, brutish human, moulding the land irrevocably. I hoped that our footprint would not ever be heavier than that. The seasonal creeks were full and rushing after so much recent rain. For us, having running water was one of the non-negotiable criteria for our purchase. Owning a woodland has long been our dream, but it was only recently made possible due to the inheritance of my late father, the man who taught me how to love camping and being outdoors. But these ancient English woodlands were nothing like what I grew up with in America; there is something magical about the stillness in that sea of unearthly blue. I am certain that my father would approve – though as a keen fly fisherman, he would be disappointed to learn that the creeks dry up in the heat of summer and no trout could survive there. The first thing we did was to dig out a large firepit and ring it with stones we’d brought from home. Everything was quite damp, but our son, aged nine and an enthusiastic Cub Scout, helped us to coax a blaze from his ferro rod, and sawed his first logs. The warmth was welcome, and we used our Storm Kettle (a kind gift from Ruth at woodlands.co.uk) to make hot chocolate. A pair of fallow deer – clearly surprised to see us – bolted past, and the canopy was full of birdsong. I didn’t want to leave when other chores and obligations eventually called us away – the sun had come out, making the bluebells glow, and there was no place I’d rather be. Our next step is to build a compostable toilet so that we can camp overnight. We’ll let you know how that goes!