Woodlands and hedgerows are important features of our countryside.  Just as woodlands vary across the country, so do hedgerows.  A hedgerow usually includes a number of tree and shrub species, but may also include walls, banks, fencing and gates.  They may have been planted recently or may be ancient, dating back to the time of the enclosures. It has been estimated that there are over half a million kilometres of hedgerow across England, and the majority are actively managed.  In a managed hedgerow, the trees and shrubs have their form and shape altered.   The trees and shrubs that form the basics of a hedgerow include hawthorn, hazel, oak, holly, blackthorn, ash and yew. These may form the main body of the hedge but there are many other plants that contribute to its structure, such as bramble, honeysuckle and ivy, many wild flowers plus mosses, bryophytes, fungi and lichens.  [In urban settings, species like  privet, yew, box and holly may form the basis of the hedge / hedgerow.] [caption id="attachment_42838" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Beech hedge in garden[/caption] Consequently, hedges come in a variety of shapes and sizes and can include many different species. Rural hedges are often a mix of shrub and tree species, such as hawthorn, blackthorn, hazel, ash and oak. They were / are often planted to form boundaries around fields in managed agricultural landscapes.  Historically, many hedgerows were planted to keep livestock, such as sheep, cattle, pigs, chickens in specific areas. Other hedgerows were planted to define boundaries as in ‘who owned which bit of land’.  Hedgerows often surround fields.   The word ‘field’ comes from Old English ‘feld’, meaning 'an area of felled trees  or open country'.  Hedgerows are important as they offer habitats / niches for a variety of plants and animals. Not only do they provide ‘food and lodgings’ for many animals, they also act as biological corridors, supporting plant and animal connectivity across our landscape.  The flowers, fruits, berries and nuts are an important source of food for many invertebrates, birds and mammals. [caption id="attachment_24651" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Sloes on Blackthorn[/caption] Animals such the harvest mouse, the hedgehog and the vole may be found nesting in a hedgerow, and it offers food and / or homes for blue tits, and yellowhammers. They also support important insect pollinators, butterflies, hover flies, moths, bumblebees and bees. These insects may help with the pollination of crops in adjacent fields planted with oilseed rape, legumes or fruit trees. Other insects, such as ladybirds can help with crop yields by predating upon crop pests, such as green fly and blackfly (these aphids may spread viral diseases on crops such as sugar beet).  Sadly, hedgerows declined significantly in the last century, due mainly to intensification of agriculture. Fortunately, the destruction / loss has slowed since the 1990’s, though neglect and damage are significant threats even today.  Good management may involve planting of trees or shrubs to fill gaps, coppicing, laying a hedge or ‘considered’ cutting back.  However, there is no standardisation of the management of hedgerows and they can be harmed by excessive cutting back or flailing.   The effects of heavy pruning and cutting back during the nesting season can be disastrous. Whilst mechanical flailing of a hedgerow is fast and effective,  the regrowth is generally slower and its effects can be particularly bad for birds. [They may abandon their nests and / or  their eggs or chicks may be destroyed.] The pruning / flailing may also affect insect populations of the hedgerow (and / or other other food sources) on which the birds and other animals depend.  Another threat can be the use of agricultural chemicals [pesticides and herbicides] next to the hedgerow. [caption id="attachment_42843" align="aligncenter" width="675"] A managed hedge[/caption] For further and detailed information on hedgerows, visit : https://hedgelink.org.uk/guidance/importance-of-hedgerows/  

Woodlands.co.uk has said on many occasions that our country has been ‘denuded’ of its natural vegetation.  Woodlands, meadows, grasslands, and wetlands have been lost,  and the range of many species has been reduced. Efforts are being made to restore some of these ecosystems.  However, it is not an easy or simple process.  Throwing some seeds on degraded ecosystems / soils simply will not work.  Seeds have requirements if they are to germinate.  For example, some seeds to experience a period of cold before they will germinate, others need exposure to light of a particular wavelength (to activate the phytochrome system). Such needs must be set against a changing climate where warmer winters and drier summers (like last year) are expected to become more common.  Seeds collected from one area of the country may have adapted to specific local conditions, so if sown 500 miles away - they may not fare so well. To test whether some of our native species could cope with ‘new’ places and changing temperatures, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew and Wakehurst) made use of the seed collection at the Millennium Seed Bank.  The seed collection at Wakehurst is diverse, with many samples of various species collected from different places at different times. Different samples would be expected to have slightly different genetic backgrounds. The researchers selected six species from the Millennium collections: Yarrow Common knapweed Wild carrot Ox-eye daisy Yellow rattle Autumn hawkbit [Seeds of these species are often included in commercially available wildflower seed mixtures used to create wild flower areas in gardens etc. Some of these mixtures may include seeds imported from Europe or elsewhere.]  To test the temperature tolerance of the various seeds samples and whether the different genetic backgrounds affected their germination, the seed samples were exposed to temperatures ranging from 0oC to 40oC.   The researchers then recorded the minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures for seed germination of each species.  These figures were then compared with historical records of climate, and temperature projections in our changing world.  The results indicate that  various species would be able to germinate in a warming climate.   Of the six species, four were able to germinate across a range of temperatures, namely yarrow, knapweed, ox-eye daisy and autumn hawkbit. This suggests that they would cope with a warming climate (and would be suitable species for use in restoration projects). Yarrow and ox eye daisy showed good germination at varying temperatures independent on their local provenance, and are therefore good candidates when sowing in restoration areas. However, wild carrot and yellow rattle were not as ‘straight forward’.  Carrot seeds need to experience a cold period before they will germinate, so milder winters might be a problem.  Yellow rattle only germinated within a small range of low temperatures (like those of late winter).  Whilst this means, a young plant can have an early start and an advantage over its competitors, it suggests that if winters become too mild then its germination and life cycle will be affected. This ‘sensitivity’ was true across the different samples of yellow rattle used in this trial. Interestingly, yellow rattle is an obligate hemiparasitic annual.  It is of particular interest for restoration projects as it helps in the establishment of species-rich meadows. For further details of this study, go to https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.70239

The establishment and management of orchards in the UK probably started in Roman times.  The organised growing of apples, pears, plums and cherries developed during the 1st to 4th centuries of the CE.  However, with the withdrawal of the Romans, the management of many orchards declined, though it was maintained in some monasteries. These orchards offered such communities stored / preserved fruit, ‘medicines’ and cider.  Later during the medieval period, orchards were often present in manor houses, outside of villages, monasteries and other community settings.  Most of the orchards grew apples and pears, though cherries, plums / damsons were also grown.   Moving on to Tudor and Stuart times, these were good times for orchard and fruit expansion in general.  A wider range of varieties became available, pruning and grafting techniques improved, as did the layout of trees within orchards.  Books were written on fruit and orchard cultivation by people like John Gerard and John Evelyn (his contribution on fruit trees appeared in the appendix of ‘Sylva’ - entitled Pomona); so good practice spread.  Some orchards were part of a mixed use landscape, where grazing animals wandered between the trees.  Such orchards are sometimes referred to as ‘heritage orchards’, in contrast to more modern techniques of orchard management.  Further changes took place in the 18th and 19th centuries which saw the introduction of many varieties of fruit e.g. Kentish Cherries and Herefordshire Apples. At this time orchards reached their greatest coverage in our landscape. However, the 20th century saw a sharp decline in the maintenance and number of orchards.  The decline was due to a number of factors : Traditional orchards are long lived but require regular management Two world wars - these encouraged the use of land for increased food production / arable crops.   Urban expansion and increased need for housing and transport networks resulted in the loss of many city and village orchards Cheaper imports of fruits Subsidies and grants supported the removal orchards. Also, some  orchards survived but heritage / traditional orchards with tall, widely spaced trees were grubbed up and replaced with low stemmed, high density planting. These trees bear fruit after a shorter period of time and the collection of the fruit can be done mechanically.  Sadly, such trees support less wildlife. Beers and lagers replaced cider as a traditional drink, traditionally it was supplied to farmworkers / labourers. Supermarkets wanted fruit that was unblemished with a long shelf life. Plus, the demand for certain apple varieties (e.g cooking apples) fell. Now, orchards are recognised as valuable habitats and community orchards are being re-established.  A community orchard is a shared space, which support fruit and nut trees.  The trees grown include apple, pear, cherry, plum, walnut and hazelnut. Sometimes there is an understory of soft fruits, various herbs and plants which support pollinators of the trees. The community orchards are normally looked after by local people or organisations and ‘managed’ by local groups such as ‘not for profit’ organisations, the local council or a specific neighbourhood group. The orchards are usually open access / semi public, with the harvests shared with the volunteers and the local community, providing fresh local food.   The harvesting of the fruit, nuts and sometimes vegetables varies from ‘pick what you need’ to ‘an organised distribution’ to ‘local food banks’ and ‘community kitchens’.  To find out more about community orchards and if there is one near you - visit the Orchard Network at the Peoples Trust for Endangered Species.