Bark exists to protect a tree from ‘attack’ by the elements, pests, ‘predators’ (animals who would eat it) and disease causing organisms.  There is no easy definition of what constitutes bark,   a slightly technical definition might be ‘the tissues that lie outside the vascular cambium'.  The vascular cambium is a layer of dividing cells that gives rise to xylem tissue and phloem tissue.  The cells nearer the centre form the xylem, those towards the outside form the phloem.    The inner part of the bark contains various types of living cells, for example, glands that produce latex (as in natural rubber), oils and resins.  Moving outwards, there lies the rhytidome or outer bark, an amalgam of living and dead material - notably cork cells.  The cork cells fill with a waxy material - Suberin. Eventually, these cells die and form much of the bulk of the bark.  The nature of bark is immensely variable. Wind, fire and frost can seriously damage or kill trees but bark helps  to protect them.   Trees are eminently combustible as is evidenced by the recent forest fires in Australia and California. However, some trees have a very thick bark that can protect them against fire.  The cork oak has a bark that can be up to 30 cm thick, it is so thick that it can be harvested periodically without killing the trees.  Cork oak is grown extensively in the mediterranean region. Giant Redwoods too are noted for having an extremely thick bark. Their bark is very fibrous and can be up to three feet thick, it offers protection against fire (and rock fall which is also a hazard in their home habitat). In contrast to cork oak and redwoods, some trees like the eucalypts have a bark that is rich in oils and very flammable.  The bark also ‘peels’, strips are shed onto the forest floor. There are many species of Eucalyptus and several different types of bark are recognised.  [caption id="attachment_35352" align="alignleft" width="300"] Woodland recovering from a fire[/caption] If and when this oil rich bark builds up on the forest floor, it will contribute significantly to the intensity and ferocity of any fire. Indeed, it has been likened to adding petrol to a fire ’3 centimetres of leaf litter can cause a conflagration equivalent to one fuelled by a centimetre of refined gasoline’.  The leaves are also rich in oil so the crowns of the trees can also contribute to / exacerbate any fire.  The peeling or exfoliation of bark is not restricted to Eucalypts, it can be seen in trees much closer to home - such as the birch.  Its bark can be removed in long strips and has been used in covering a canoe or roofing material. Whilst bark can protect against fire, it can also deter animals - large or small from inflicting damage.  For example, there is an African species of Acacia known as knobthorn that has a bark covered with thorn-like structures.  These 'thorns' deter elephants from eating the bark.  Elephants can consume a lot of vegetation in a day and tree bark is much favoured.  A variety of animals may feed on bark material, for example deer, squirrels, and beavers, but the list could also include orang-utans, rhinos, bush babies and porcupines. North American porcupines use their large front teeth to eat bark and stems. Bushbabies generally feed on insects during the wet seasons, but during drought / dry periods - they feed on the resins / gum that flows from the trees in their woodlands. In the UK, a lot of bark damage is done by deer, especially during the winter months when other food sources are limited.  In the summer months, male deer rub their heads / antlers against the trunks of trees - inflicting damage.  Such activity can prevent regeneration in natural woodlands.  Tree guards may be needed to allow young trees to establish themselves (or fencing to create a ‘deer free’ zone).  Guards also protect against rabbit damage.  Grey squirrels can also cause damage to trees as they gnaw stems to reach the ‘sweet’, sap-filled tissues just below the bark, this activity is usually seen in late Spring and early Summer. [caption id="attachment_5312" align="alignleft" width="300"] xylem vessels[/caption] Whilst bark is broadly protective, it can also offer a home to certain pests.  Bark beetles lay their eggs below the bark so that when the larvae hatch, they can feed on the nutrient rich tissue of the cambium and phloem.  Bark beetles have been responsible for the loss of millions of trees in the United States and Canada.  The scale of the loss is much greater than in the past, when cycles of beetle infestation and fire created a mosaic across the countryside of young and old trees.  Ageing stands of trees coupled with warmer winters (which have helped the overwintering stage of the insect)  have contributed to the spread of bark beetles.  The beetles breed and feed beneath the bark, damaging the phloem and cambium tissue.  Consequently, the tree's transport systems begin to fail and the beetles may also introduce disease-causing fungi and bacteria. To a certain extent, trees are able to repair damage to their bark but the response is varied according to the nature of the damage and the tree involved. Some trees can produce ‘callus tissue’ that heals over the ‘wound’, leaving a scar. Some trees, such as the pines, produce resins and antimicrobial compounds in response to injury.  This sticky resin may trap insect invaders as is witnessed by those trapped in time capsules of amber.   Apart from bark beetles, other animals and plants live in or on bark in a variety of associations, some parasitic as is the case with fungi (like the polypores), whilst lichens and mosses are epiphytes.  They use the bark as a substrate on which to live, grabbing nutrients and water from rainwater as it trickles down.   The many uses of bark tissue can be left for another woodlands post. [caption id="attachment_39940" align="aligncenter" width="620"] Section through bark[/caption]

Earlier flowering times. A survey has shown that plants are flowering earlier in the year.  Cambridge University researchers compared the dates of flowering of some four hundred plus species before and after 1986. They found that plants are now flowering roughly one month earlier.  More recent decades have been associated with rising air temperatures. This change in flowering time may have profound consequences for the plants.  The vast majority of plants are dependent on pollinating insects (bees, bumblebees, hoverflies) to set seed and complete their life cycles.  By flowering early their cycle, plants may not match up  with the activities of their pollinators. They may flower but their pollinators bee ‘missing’. Their pollinators need to emerge from their overwintering stage earlier. Earlier flowering may not matter for those plants that are visited by several pollinators but for those that are dependent on one or two specific visitors - it may critical.  For example, Sainfoin.  Sainfoin is host to a particular (solitary) bee Melitta dimidiata (remote image here).   It is a monolectic bee; i.e., a bee that collects food (nectar and pollen) from only one species of flower - the sainfoin.  If the sainfoin flowers earlier in the year and the bee does not match the shift in flowering, then the bee has a problem. Work on the effects of climate change on pollinators has been somewhat limited to date, but studies in Japan suggest that bees / bumblebees are somewhat behind plants in their response to environmental changes. Bee and bumblebee news. Recent research data provide evidence that (buff tailed) bumblebees are not able to detect or avoid concentrations of pesticides [imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, or sulfoxaflor], as used ‘on the farm’ - from signals sent by their mouthparts. The mouthparts are covered with tiny hairs and these hairs have ‘pores’ in them. Chemicals pass through these ‘pores’ to sensory cells; this is how the bee tastes and smells. It seems likely that the bumblebees are at considerable risk of consuming pesticides in their search for nectar when visiting pesticide-treated crops. [caption id="attachment_19675" align="alignleft" width="300"] Bumbles foraging in artichoke[/caption] Another agrochemical,  Roundup,  has been found to affect the learning and memory of bumblebees. Roundup, which contains glyphosate, affects their ability to learn and memorise connections between colour and taste.  Impaired colour vision is likely to affect the foraging and nesting success of the bees.  The research was conducted in Finland by researchers at the University of Turku. In yet another concerning study, researchers at the University of Maryland have found that the life span of laboratory-raised honey bees has reduced considerably.    Five decades ago, the lifespan for a worker honeybee (Apis mellifera) under controlled laboratory conditions was about 34 days. Now it is some 17/ 18 days - according the report in Nature.  The study also reviewed the scientific literature [from the 1970s to now] and noted a trend in the life span of bees.   Shortened worker bee lifespan has implications for colony health and survivorship.  The work at the University of Maryland is ongoing. Methane release. Ghost forests are found in coastal areas.  As a consequence of climate change, sea water has ‘invaded’ low laying areas and trees have died. The dead trees are sometimes referred to as ‘snags.  A  number of woodland / forest communities along the eastern coast of the United States have been affected.  Recent work by North Carolina State University has shown that these ghost forests release methane.  The methane is generated by bacteria in the soil but then ‘escapes’ by means of the ‘snags’.  As it passes through the wood of the ‘snags’, microbes may consume and alter the methane.   As methane is a potent greenhouse gas, understanding the nature and extent of these methane emissions from ‘ghost forests’ is important. Tree rings The study of tree rings has been invaluable in dating many historic objects ./ archaeological sites.  Now, it seems that they could play a role in estimating the amount of carbon that trees are actually absorbing (carbon sequestration), if woodland / forest inventories are coupled with core samples of the trees. The measurement of the annual rings from such cores could create a record of ‘tree growth across space and time’, yielding a more accurate estimate of the amount of carbon being taken up by woodland and forests. Forests, soils and oceans are major ‘carbon sinks’.

According to the United Nations, a forest is anywhere that is at least 20% trees.  As 21% of our capital city, London, lies under the canopy of trees - it is an urban forest*. It is estimated that there are some 8 million plus trees - nearly as many trees as people.  London is not alone, Johannesburg is a densely wooded city with some 6 million trees, planted throughout the streets and private properties. Tree Cities of the World is a programme that recognises cities and towns committed to ensuring that their urban forests and trees are properly maintained and  sustainably managed. Urban environments can create difficult conditions for tree growth and development. The trees may be exposed to pollutants, high temperatures (heat island effect), drought and/or flooding, and challenging conditions for growth. . Whilst trees may be planted, their subsequent care / nurturing may be limited due to insufficient resources (money / care etc).  There needs to be long term maintenance to sustain not just healthy trees but also to make sure that the trees do not damage pavements / roads etc (for example, through root penetration).   Trees for Streets is a new national tree sponsorship scheme that some councils have partnered with, which gives local residents the chance to have a tree near them or in a local park.   It is a project run by the charity Trees for Cities which aims to support local communities in revitalising forgotten spaces, planting trees and improving the local environment. [caption id="attachment_39418" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Greenery in SE London. View towards St.Helier's hospital.[/caption] In the past, London was a much smaller city surrounded by countryside and woodland, but there are still areas of ancient woodland within it.  Some of this woodland remains such as the Great North Wood in South London (hence Norwood and Forest Hill). Other place names - Wood Green, Forest Gate, Nine Elms and Burnt Oak bear witness to the wooded landscape that was once prevalent across London. In fact, some 8% of London’s area is still woodland, and some of it is even defined as ancient woodland (e.g. Epping Forest). [caption id="attachment_39421" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Dulwich Park[/caption] There are also the many parks of London - Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, Richmond Park, Dulwich Park etc.  Add to these the trees found in school fields, private gardens, squares (like Berkeley and Portman Squares), plus the trees that line so many streets (estimated at 900,000).  Trees (like sycamore and buddleia) have also colonised areas of the built environment,  like railway lines / cuttings.  The most common London trees are sycamore (7.8%), oaks (7.3%) and birch (6.2%). However, the urban forest has a wide spectrum of species that includes native species, such as  ash,  hawthorn,  hornbeam,  field maple and  holly,  but there is a wide variety of exotics and cultivars in parks, streets and private gardens.  In some parts of the capital, the London Plane is a noticeable presence, due to its resistance to pollution and tolerance of root compaction. It sheds 'large flakes' or sections of its bark exposing new material of a variety of colours (brown, grey, yellow), and is sometimes described as ‘self cleaning’.  The London Plane is thought to be a hybrid of the American sycamore and Oriental plane.  So the urban forest is quite diverse in terms of species when viewed across the capital, but there are parts of the city where species diversity is poor and the age profile of the trees is sometimes limited.  This homogeneity can favour pests and disease.  Diversity generally favours to resilience.  Currently, trees face diseases such as acute oak decline, Chalara ash dieback, horse chestnut leaf miner, Massaria disease of plane and oak processionary moth.   London’s urban forest faces an increasing human population and the challenges of climate change.  The latter may bring substantial warming and changing rainfall patterns. Wetter, milder winters and drier, hotter summers may be more common in the coming decades. Some trees will be better able to cope with these changing conditions.  Future planting will have to follow the maxim of “right tree, right place”. The value of London’s forest is difficult to quantify or to put a figure on. It is a major part of the ‘green infrastructure’ – that is the matrix of green spaces, parks, recreation grounds, lakes, canals, and rivers plus the street trees , green roofs and allotments that provides a range of economic, environmental, and social benefits. The importance of green, leafy spaces came to the fore during the early days of the Covid pandemic, helping with mental and physical wellbeing of Londoners.  [caption id="attachment_27166" align="alignleft" width="300"] Mature oak in park.[/caption] The components of the forest offer valuable habitats for wildlife and also provide biological corridors /  stepping stones that enable birds and various animals to move through the urban environment. The ancient woodlands and veteran trees offer a home to a variety of wildlife such as bats, stag beetles, orchids etc.  In recent heatwaves, people have appreciated that trees also provide shade and cooling in streets and parks. Another aspect of extreme weather is very heavy rainfall, trees and green areas can help reduce the risk of flooding, allowing more water to enter the soil rather than running off hard surfaces of tarmac and concrete.   Trees also help capture pollutants, improving local air quality by capturing fine particles from the air (much of this is through deposition on leaf surfaces).  One source suggest that trees remove some 2241 tonnes of pollutants each year.  Trees and shrubs seem particularly effective in removing ozone, and through its photosynthetic capacity the urban forest can take up carbon dioxide into organic form. The amount of carbon taken up by London’s urban forest each year has been estimated at 77,200 tonnes. To maintain and augment this urban forest, it is important  in the coming years that the threats of pests and diseases are fully assessed and controlled  The threats arising from climate change are recognised / mitigated Woodlands are properly managed (eg. coppicing); this may include the training of personnel. Create opportunities for planting of trees, hedgerows and woodland. [caption id="attachment_39422" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Tree nursery - 'ready for planting'.[/caption] * https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2022/04/21_0024_Leaflet-CC-factsheet-Urban-forests_wip06_Acc.pdf

The Wild Service Tree is a native British species.   Nowadays,  the tree is quite rare and  can be an  indicator of ancient woodland.   The wild service tree or chequers tree (Sorbus torminalis) is a member of the Rose family (Rosaceae).  The term torminalis is botanical latin meaning “of or belonging to the gripes, good against the colic”,  because the fruits were (at one time) used as a remedy for the colic. It is a tree native to England and Wales but not to Scotland or Ireland.  Within those two home nations its distribution is patchy; it is not a common tree.  However, it is widely distributed across Europe  (notably France and Germany). The tree is light-demanding species and it suffers if the canopy closes in, so tends to favour the woodland margins, coppiced areas with open and sunny conditions and hedgerows.  It does not ‘like’ water logged conditions, nor dry sandy soils.  Trials in Sweden, Norway and Denmark indicate the good growth is achieved soils with a silt content of just under 14%, and it can tolerate a pH range from acid through neutral to slightly alkaline. The tree can grown to a height of 20 to 30 metres, if the conditions are right - and the growth can be fast.  Young trees can grow at a rate of one metre a year.   It sends down quite deep roots and develops strong laterals (which may extend beyond the diameter of the crown).  This means that they are ‘windfirm’ and relatively drought tolerant.  The leaves bear some similarity to those of maple.  In Spring, the tree produces bunches of creamy white flowers, which provide pollen and nectar for insects. The flowers when fertilised produce brown berries.  Like Medlars, these may be bletted - allowed to become over-ripe and have been used to make jams, drinks.   However, many of the fruits fall to the ground where they may be eaten by birds or small mammals. If eaten by birds, then the seeds may be dispersed over a wide area but natural regeneration from seeds is uncommon (though suckering from roots is a possibility).  Young plants / saplings may be targeted by voles and mice, they are also sensitive to competition (especially from brambles). The tree is not grown for timber production in the UK, but abroad the timber is valued as one of the hardest, native European woods.  The colour is yellow to light red, though old trees can have a deeper colour.  Because of its hardness it was used in the past to make mill cogs, mangle wheels, parts in textile mills and wine presses.  Now, the wood is used in furniture making and for wind instruments (flutes, recorders, bag pipes).  Wild service trees, grown for timber, are ‘raised’ in ‘coppice with standards”, where the service trees are the standards. Thanks to Ruth for images.  

For biodiversity to flourish, a wide variety of microhabitats is needed.  With many micro-habitats, more species are able to thrive. It may seem counter-intuitive but deadwood offers opportunities for a diverse range of species. Within a woodland, there are various types of deadwood, providing shelter and food for many organisms.  Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of deadwood is standing but dead trees.  If the dead tree was a veteran, then it will provide a variety of micro-habitats.  Holes and crevices may be used by bats and birds, the decaying wood will be colonised by bacteria and fungi, bracket fungi may erupt - whilst the bark will continue to offer a substrate for mosses and lichens.  As the wood decays, the material becomes a home for saproxylic beetles. Stag beetle larvae feed on decaying wood underground,  whilst the adults rely on fat reserves built up during their larval stage. Adults can ‘drink' oozing sap  and the juice of soft, rotting fruit. In the UK, some 650 beetle species are associated with deadwood [visit Dr Ross Piper’s website for full details of these insects].  As with many insects, many saproxylic beetles are threatened with extinction - due to the decline in the number of veteran / ancient trees.  Saproxylic beetles, apart from being important in the recycling of materials, are also food for birds and mammals. A previous blog has extolled the virtue of dead hedges.  Dead hedges are simply piles of branches and twigs arranged to create a barrier / hedge. They represent  a way of disposing of material that arises from thinning or clearing operations in woodlands. This ‘waste material’ of saplings and side branches are sometimes referred to as “arisings" by tree surgeons, or "lop and top” by foresters. Using this material in this way is good for wildlife, particularly for small mammals and birds - as it gives them somewhere to shelter from the wind and rain, and protection from predators. It's also good for insects.  As the material rots and decomposes, it adds humus / nutrients to the underlying soil. Larger pieces of wood from the felling of trees can be arranged to form a stack or pile, by simply laying branches and logs on top of one another  Such a stack wil rot and decay over time, but will provide a home to a variety of wildlife. So, deadwood in its various forms, is an important part of woodland ecosystems. It has a role in delivering biodiversity, but it also provides ‘ecosystem services’, such as soil formation and nutrient cycling. Deadwood contributes to the detrital food chain, which is driven by fungi, bacteria and detritivores.   Below : All that remains of a historic tree - the Wilberforce Oak. It was here at Holwood House (Keston , near Hayes, Bromley) in 1788 that William Wilberforce resolved to address the task of abolishing the slave trade. It took some twenty years for his vision to be realised. [Thanks to Ruth for images of the Wilberforce Oak] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holwood_House

Electric bees ? Both bumblebees and flowers carry an electric charge.  Flowers have a weak negative charge, whilst the bees have a positive charge.  The attraction between these two opposing electric fields may help the bees sense flowers.  The electric charge of a bee may even stimulate a flower to release a burst of scent, aka volatile organic compounds.  This was true for petunias, but not snapdragons.  When a bee has visited a flower, the negative charge is briefly lost - maybe a signal to tell other bbees not to visit? Other work by Bristol University has indicated that synthetic fertilisers and pesticide can interfere with a flower’s electric charge for some time after spraying, and that this can modify the foraging of bumblebees. "Black bees" The black bee, Apis mellifera mellifera, faces a number of threats like the domestic honey bee.  It is also known as the European Dark Bee or the Black German Bee. It has been present since the retreat of the last Ice Age, but its distribution has become restricted as a result of habitat loss, parasitism by Varroa mites and viruses. The black bee can be distinguished from other honey bees by its stocky body and sparse abdominal hair (which is brown), and overall dark coloration - so they appear black or dark brown. Recent research (using DNA analysis) has shown that black honeybees can be found in many locations in Ireland and are not extinct, as previously suggested  Black bees are noted for their longevity and hardiness (ability to cope with winter temperatures); it is possible that if winters become shorter / milder that this change may not favour black bees. Weird weeds? It seems that our gardens may be home to ‘new’ or unusual species of plants.   The Royal Horticultural Society would like gardeners to report on interesting ‘weeds’ that might find as they could be rare plants or plants growing in unusual places / areas.  You are asked to take photographs of anything that you find interesting, and upload the images to iNaturalist. Reporting on unusual plants is not the only thing that the RHS is interested in. There are other garden projects that one can contribute to, for example, reporting sightings of garden pests such as the berberis sawfly, cellar slug, hemerocallis gall midge, lily beetle, rosemary beetle and spittlebug. Mycorrhizal networks. A common mycorrhizal network (CMN) is when fungal hyphae connect the roots of many plants (either of the same or different species) below ground.  They have attracted considerable attention in recent times (woodland wide webs), with claims, for example, that resources are transferred through CMNs to increase seedling performance and mature trees send resources / defence signals to offspring etc.  However, a recent report in Nature has suggested that there is a ‘bias’ towards citing the positive effects of CMNs and that, to date, knowledge of common mycorrhizal networks is limited.    

The onset of Spring brings a variety of blue flowered plants such a bluebells, hyacinths and squills in our gardens, parks and woodlands. The bluebell is ‘easily’ recognisable.  However, there are two or three different types of bluebells. The bluebell that is native to the UK has the Latin or Linnaean name of Hyacinthoides non scripta. Its deep blue and scented flowers hang from an elegantly arching stem. It is found in abundance in many deciduous woodlands and hedgerows across the UK, though it is unusual or rare in parts of East Anglia and Scotland.  The Spanish bluebell (H. hispanica) is also to be found. It is possible to distinguish between the two species – some of the differences are listed in the table below: Native Bluebell Spanish Bluebell Leaves are narrow by comparison to Spanish Bluebell, about half an inch or so wide Leaves broader, often an inch or more wide The flowers at the top of the stem droop to one side The top of the stem is much more erect The flowers hang from one side of the stem The flowers are arranged around the stem The flowers are deep violet blue The flowers are a pale or mid blue, and white and pink ones are also found The flowers have parallel or straight sides and have a narrow bell shape The flowers are more ‘open’ with a cone shaped bell The tips of the petals roll back somewhat as though they ‘want’ to touch the tube of the flower Not such obvious curving The pollen is a pale cream colour Pollen is a blue colour Flowers are scented No scent detectable The spanish bluebell can hybridise with the native bluebell, giving rise to types that have a mixture of the above characteristics.     The Natural History Museum is trying to map the distribution of these different bluebells and it is asking people to complete an online questionnaire about the bluebells in their gardens, local parks, hedgerows and woodlands. If you can help, go to: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/british-natural-history/survey-bluebells/recording/index.html Since this was first posted in 2006, there have been various updates, but the bluebell survey link does not seem to be active now. See : https://www.nhm.ac.uk/take-part/citizen-science/bluebell-survey.html

Several thousand years ago, Scotland was extensively forested.  As the Ice Age came to an end, so the glaciers retreated and Scots Pine, birch, rowan, aspen and juniper populated the land, forming the Caledonian* Forest.  Pollen records indicate that Scots Pine was present in southern England some 9000 years ago, it then moved into Scotland.  Scots Pine is one of the UK’s three native conifers; the other two being Yew and Juniper. As the climate warmed, Scots Pine was lost from most of England.  The pine woodland that formed in Scotland was the westernmost part of the boreal forest that extended across most of Northern Europe.  At its peak, (about seven thousand years ago), the forest covered some 1.5 million hectares in Scotland.  It was a ‘home’ to beavers, wild boar, brown bears, elk and wolves.  These have since been ‘lost’, though in recent times, the European Beaver has been re-introduced. However, with the arrival and establishment of neolithic farmers, areas of heath and woodland were burned to encourage fresh growth of heather for their cattle and goats. Some time later (about 3000 years ago), there was period of cold and wet weather, peat bogs spread and the tree line was lowered. In places, broad leaved trees replaced Scots pine.  Throughout historical times, the felling of trees for timber and fuel continued, as did the grazing of livestock.  Later came extensive sheep farming and this was followed in Victorian times by deer and grouse shooting.  All of these limited woodland regeneration.  So what was once an extensive forest was reduced to a fraction of its former size. Remnants of this once great forest can still be found and even today these woodlands offer a rich habitat that supports a diverse flora and fauna, where pine marten, capercaillie, red squirrel, Scottish crossbill and wildcat can be found.  Glenmore is a National Nature Reserve with many mature Scots Pine, Glen Tanar is another area of Caledonian* pine forest, set within the Cairngorms National Park.  The woodland floor provides a habitat for many plant species typical of the Caledonian Forest - twinflower, creeping lady's-tresses.    Rare and unusual insects are also to be found such as the bumblebee robber fly. According to a recent study by “Trees for life” many of the the remnants of the ancient pine forest are on a ‘knife edge’. Large numbers of deer have and are damaging the woodlands.  The deer eat pine saplings and damage bark. This can result in birch replacing pine. Whilst there have been efforts to exclude deer in some areas by putting fencing in place, the fenced areas were often not big enough or over time the deer were able to breach the fencing and continue to forage.  Pine trees need time to establish themselves free from the impact of grazing. Some areas of pinewood suffered from the planting (in the 1950s) on non-native conifers, such as Sitka Spruce.  As these grow they can crowd out Scots Pine.  Many others areas are small and ‘isolated’. This leads to a reduction in biodiversity, so it is more difficult for natural regeneration to occur.  It also means that resilience is lost in the face of threats like climate change.   * the roman name for the area now Scotland was Caledonia.   Scots Pine is sometimes described as an ‘honorary hardwood', as it grows slower than certain conifers and produces better quality timber. The loss of forest across the Earth is a cause for concern - see https://theconversation.com/how-forest-loss-has-changed-biodiversity-across-the-globe-over-the-last-150-years-140968